Complete English Irregular Verb List -- Free PDF Download

english irregular verbs conjugation list pdf

english irregular verbs conjugation list pdf - win

B1 Self Study Guide

I've seen a lot of requests and questions regarding the B1 level, how to reach it, B1 Exams (Goethe Zertifikat B1), etc. and I was wondering if there's any way you can reach B1 on your own. So as soon as I finished my Goethe A2 course, I started my B1 journey. I researched, I asked my teachers about the books/resources before I used them and I studied every day, at least an hour a day and sometimes even three hours/day. So I thought I'd share some of my experiences
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\** NOTE:* Be aware that some of the things mentioned here might or might not work for you; this is just my personal self-study experience
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These are the resources that I've used and also how I've used them:
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1) BOOKS
Get some good books. I can't speak for all the books out there, probably there are betteworse ones, but these are the ones I've used:
I picked these ones because I got them at a very good price and also a friend of mine who was B1 at the time, told me that that's what they use in class at Goethe Institut. I worked through the books every day, doing one chapter from the KB and then one chapter the next day from the AB, so that I could apply what I learned from the previous day. Don't move on to the next chapter if there's something you didn't understand (especially Grammar), because you will encounter it again and again, and you'll soon find yourself unable to understand anything.
\** Note: Unfortunately, the Arbeitsbuch has no answers at the back of the book, so if you're not sure about how you did the questions, here are the links to the official answers from Hueber Verlag*
Menschen Loesungsschluessel Arbeitsbuch B1.1
Menschen Loesungsschluessel Arbeitsbuch B1.2
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2) GRAMMAR
Grammar is essential and B1 is where it becomes essential. And you MUST know it. (Personal experience: I thought I had a well-consolidated vocabulary because I was able to understand a lot of words, but once I started to encounter structures like "je...desto or entweder...oder" things might start to get a bit tricky and no matter how much vocabulary you know, it'll be really hard to tell the meaning of a sentence. So Learn the GRAMMAR.
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German level B1 has a lot of grammar topics. In every chapter at least 3–4 grammar topics are present. List of Grammar topics in B1 is as follows.
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Praeteritum formen: Ich suchte, du suchtest, etc. using “te” instead of partizip II.
Vergangenes berichten
vergangenheit, vorvergangenheit, plusquamperfekt
Futur I
Bildung des passiv; werden+partizip II, wurde+partizip II, sein+partizip II
Passiv mit Modalverb: Modalverb+Partizip II+werden im infinitiv
Konjuktiv II der Modalverben
Irreale Bedingungssaetze mit Konjuktiv II
Verb mit Pareposition
nicht/kein+brauchen+zu, nur+brauchen+zu
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Genetiv: “des”
n-Deklination
Adjektive als Substantive
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Komparitiv und Superlativ vor Substativen
Adjektiv nach dem bestimmten und unbestimmten Artikel: Genitiv
Adjektivdeklination ohne Artikel
Partizip als Adjektive
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Reflexivpronomen im Akkusativ und Dativ
Pronomen mit Praeposition und Pronominaladverbien
Artikelwoerter als Pronomen
Reflexivpronomen was und wo
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Wegen und Trotz
Innerhalb und Ausserhalb
Temporale praepositionen Vor, Nach, waehrend
aus+material
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Stellung von nicht im satz
Temporale nebensaetze: bevor, nachdem, seit/seitdem, waehrend, bis
Folgen ausdruecken:
deshalb, darum, deswegen
sodass, so….dass
Gruende und Gegenguende ausdruecken: weil/da, obwohl
Infinitiv mit zu
Relativsaetze: Relativpronomen im Dativ
Relativsaetze: Relativpronomen mit Praeposition
Verben mit praeposition und Nebensatz
Zweiteilige Konnektoren:
Sowohl, als auch
nicht nur, sondern auch
entweder, oder
weder, noch
zwar, aber
einerseits, andererseits
Saetze mit je….desto…
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\** Note: Some of these (if not all of them) are explained in Textbooks, but some textbooks just go over them briefly. That's why I suggest if you didn't understand something or if it isn't very well explained in the book, look it up*
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3) VOCABULARY (+Listening)
Vocabulary is probably the most important part of learning German, and especially B1 Vocab is the starting point for all the daily and basic conversations that you might have in a German-speaking country.
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4) SPEAKING
This is where it gets tricky. If you're like me (you don't live in a German-speaking country/don't have any German friends) then you know what are the odds of running into a Native/Fluent speaker of German. It gets even trickier if you live in an English speaking country because the odds are even thinner. But there are still a couple of things that you might try in order to practice speaking.
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Apps - it's true, it's not the same thing as speaking with someone in person, but at least it challenges and forces your brain to come up with stuff that you might say in a daily conversation.
Some of you might have friends or at least know people that can speak German on a decent level. Talk to them and tell them to correct you. If not, don't worry, you'll get the chance at some point. Apps are totally fine for B1.
\**Bonus:* This is something you don't hear a lot of people do, but I did it a couple of times and it's helpful. Try having mental conversations with yourself and see how long you can keep talking. For example, you can say "Wie war dein Tag?" and go on from there. And you'll see that if you avoid answers like "Gut" or "Toll", it actually gets pretty hard to say everything that you did in one day because you don't have the vocab yet. It's a bit strange, but helpful because it shows you instantly what you know and what you don't know.
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Other resources for B1:
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I hope this helps! :)
submitted by Nerrroo to German [link] [comments]

кирип моорлаңар - This week's language of the week: Tuvan!

Tuvan (Тыва дыл, Tıwa dıl; [tʰɯˈʋa tɯl]; also known as Tuvinian, Tyvan or Tuvine) is a Turkic language spoken by slightly fewer than 300,000 in the Tuva Republic in south-central Siberia. Diaspora groups of Tuvan people that speak varying dialects can also be found in Mongolia and China.

Linguistics

As a Sayan Turkic language, Tuvan is closely related to the Tofa language, a moribund language in Russia's Irkutsk Oblast, which it once formed a dialect continuum with. From being a Turkic language in general, it is more distantly related to other languages such as Tatar (not to be confused with Crimean Tatar, to which they're both related as well), Kyrgyz, and of course everyone's favourite language, Uzbek.
Classification
Tuva's full classification is as follows:
Turkic (Proto-Turkic) > Common Turkic > Siberian Turkic > South Siberian > Sayan Turkic > Tuvan
Phonology and Phonotactics
Tuvan has 16 different vowel phonemes, contrasting 8 different qualities and 2 different lengths. Tuvan also has 8 'low-pitch' vowels that appear in word-initial syllables. Foг most sрakегs, this is rеalizеd as very low modаl voice, which hаs the aсoustiс сorгelate of low pitсh (low fundamental frеquеnсy). Early studies analyzed these as separate vowels, giving a total number of 24 vowel phonemes; however, following Anderson & Harrison (1999), from which this work draws, here they are analyzed as suprasegmental features. Thus, in the IPA, the phonemic vowels are /i y e ø ɯ u a o/ and their long counterparts. Note that, throughout this write-up, the vowels /y ø ɯ/ might be written with their turcological symbols, ü ö ɨ/ï, respectively.
Like most Turkic languages, Tuvan has a process of vowel harmony, inherited from Proto-Turkic, which already had it fully formed. Tuvan has two types of vowel harmony, Back and Round. Because of Tuvan's perfectly symmetrical vowel system, both classes contain four phonemes and no phonemes are left out of the harmony processes, i.e. there are no neutral vowels.
Out of these two, back harmony is the most robust. The process of back harmony means that either all vowels must be front vowels (the first four listed above) or back vowels (the last four). Vowels in suffixes take their cue from the closest vowel to the left, whether it's in the root or another suffix. Thus all Tuvan suffixes have at least two allomorphs, one for front vowels, and one for back vowels. An example of this is given in is-ter-im-den ('footprint-PL-1-ABL), at-tar-ïm-dan (name-PL-1-ABL), where you can see the front and back alternations of the three suffixes. Back vowel harmony arises even when consonant clusters from borrowed words are simplified by vowel epenthesis, showing just how robust this type of vowel harmony is.
Unlike other Turkic languages, such as Uzbek, where vowel harmony only applies weakly (and might be more of a relic than applying at all), Tuvan only has four morphological suffixes exceptions to back vowel harmony, allative, diminutive, durative and sequential. They may be classified respectively as invariant (non-alternating) elements (allative), borrowed suffixal elements (diminutive), or fused elements (durative, sequential). Other exceptions to back harmony occur in some compound words, through ablaut (an intensive form is created by applying ablaut to the second vowel of a disyllabic adjective; this ablauted vowel is always front, regardless of the first vowel) as well as due to co-articulatory features in fluent speech. The latter of these causes disharmony in several other Turkic languages as well.
Round harmony, on the other hand, is much more restricted in its appearance. Under round harmony, high vowels that follow a round vowel must also be round. Thus, round harmony only targets two vowels, /i/ and /ï/, which become realized as /ü/ and if the vowel before them is a round vowel. The only time the rounded high vowels appear in post-initial syllables is when this process of vowel harmony takes place. Native words thus contain no examples of a round vowel followed by a high unrounded vowel. Furthermore, due to phonotactic contrasints, no rounded vowel may follow an unrounded vowel. Thus the only time that the mid-rounded vowels, /ö/ and /o/ occur in native words is in the initial vowel position, with a few exceptions that originally derived from compound words.
There are 19 native Tuvan consonant phonemes, with two more appearing only in loan words. Tuvan consonants undergo a predictable pattern of surface changes when they are realized in a word. Tuvan bilabial stops only contrast in word-initial position. For some speakers, the contrast between [b]/[p] and [d]/[t] is one of (weak) voicing, while for other speakers they are contrasted by aspiration.
No onset clusters exist in native Tuvan words, being limited solely to borrowings. Only two possible clusters exist in the coda - [rt] and [jt]. All other word-internal clusters are heterosyllabic (i.e. they occur in two different syllables). The following syllable types are attested in native Tuvan words: V, VV, VC, VVC, VCC, CV, CVV, CVC, CVVC, CVCC. Stress in Tuvan is weak, and falls on the final syllable of a word. This stress is not sensitive to vowel quality, thus it is not attracted to long vowels; if suffixes are added, the stress typically shifts to the final suffix, though there are a few non-stress-bearing suffixes.
Morphology and Syntax
Tuvan, like all Turkic languages, is an agglutinative language, meaning suffixes are tacked on to the ends of words, often forming one long word that could represent a full English sentence. However, Tuvan does have a few morphological processes -- elision, vowel lengthening and reduplication -- which are not agglutinative.
Tuvan's basic word order is subject-object-verb. Noun phrases and verb phrases are head-final, with the maximum expansion of the noun phrase being [Demonstrative-Possessive-Adjective Phrase-Noun] and the verb phrase being [Direct Object - Indirect Object- Subject - Verb]. Some freedom is permitted within the verb-phrase for focus, with objects that move closer to the verb being more focused; however, the verb always occurs finally. Postpositions are also used in the language.
Tuvan makes no morphological distinction based on noun class/gender. However, there is one exception, the words meaning 'old' and 'young', which have different words based on whether the object is animate (people, animals, trees, the heart, etc.) or inanimate (things, plants, body parts). The animate words for old and young are, respectively, kirgan and anyak; the inanimate ones are, respectively, èrgi and čaa, with the latter also meaning 'new'. Tuvan likewise has no definite articles, with the demonstratives taking its place when something needs to be overtly marked.
However, despite not making any morphological distinctions based on noun class, Tuvan nouns do decline for seven cases -- nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, ablative and allative -- as well as for plurality. The plural marker precedes any possessive and case affixes. Nouns that are quantified by a number generally do not take the plural suffix, and ones that take a numerical-qualifier can take the plural to give a distributive meaning (i.e. 'I have read many different books').
The base case of Tuvan nouns is the nominative case, which is also the unmarked case. The nominative case is used to mark the subject of the sentence, as well as the first nominal in a two-part possessive construction. It's also used in constructions with 'auxiliary' nouns. Furthermore, it is used for an indefinite direct object of a transitive verb.
The ablative case is used to mark motion away from an object. This has been extended into temporal use as well, thus mart aydan (March month-ABL) means 'from March'. It also marks the source and the comparandum in a comparative construction. Furthermore, in uses specific to Tuvan among the Turkic languages, the ablative is used to mark the agent in certain passives and to give a partitive meaning. It is governed by certain postpositions as well.
While the accusative case in general is used to mark direct objects, it does not do this automatically in Tuvan. In fact, the accusative's primary function in Tuvan is to mark definiteness or specificity on direct objects. Furthermore, it make mark the subjects in some subordinate clauses, as well as the predicate itself in aother types. It can be used along with a third person possessive as a vocative and in some dialects its used to mark a causee over the dative case.
Contrary to other Tuvan cases, the allative case has basically one function, to mark direction wards a location, though it may also be used to denote motion around an object. This case is not descended from the Old Turkic allative case, but possibly arose from the word čak ('moment').
The Tuvan dative case serves to mark the recipient or indirect object of a verb. It is also used to mark an expressed causee in causative formations, as well as an expressed agent in passive formations. Tuvan also uses the dative instead of the locative case in the past and future to express location, and it can sometimes be used to express direction instead of the allative. It also marks the experiencer subject with certain adjectival predicates and is required on the object of other adjectival predicates.
The Tuvan genitive case's primary function is to mark the possessor in a possesive construction, followed by a noun with with a possessive suffix (see below). It can also be used to mark the subject in some subordinate clauses.
The locative case expresses location solely in the present-tense in Tuvan. This has been extended to temporal locations as well, in which case it is still used in the past tense.
A salient feature of Tuvan is that possessive constructions mark both the possessor and the possessum (thing possessed). The possessor in the clause takes the genitive case, whereas the possessum is marked with a special suffix corresponding to the number and person of the possessor. Some of these forms can be seen in the table below.
Tuvan also has a class of 'auxiliary nouns', which often indicate what would be indicated with prepositions and postpositions in other languages. Postpositions are found in Tuvan as well, but there is a formal difference in how the auxiliary nouns act when compared to the postpositions, so the two are treated as separate classes.
Nominative 1.POSS 2.POSS 3.POSS 1.PL.POSS 2.PL.POSS 3.PL.POSS English
xap xavïm xavïŋ xavï xavïvïs xavïŋar xavï 'bag'
küš küžüm küžüŋ küžü küžüvüs küžüŋer küžü 'strength, power'
The possessive markers precede the case markers, but they follow the plurality marker.
Tuvan has six pronouns, distinguishing two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons. Gender is not distinguished in the pronouns. The third singular form is also identical to the demonstrative 'that'. These pronouns are declined for all seven cases; the singular ones have certain irregularities in their declension patterns, but the plurals all decline regularly. The pronouns, in the nominative case, are summarized in the table below.
Pronoun Meaning
men 1st singular
sen 2nd singular
ol 3rd singular
bis(ter) 1st plural
siler 2nd plural
olar 3rd plural
Tuvan pronomial verbal markers can appear in two ways on verbs, either as enclitics or as suffixes. All main-clause verb forms take them as enclitics (except one of the past tense forms, to be described below), whereas all subordinate clauses use the suffix form. These markers, except for the third plural, are always required, whereas the pronoun is optional and frequently dropped; Tuvan is thus a pro-drop language.
In terms of tense-aspect-mood, Tuvan has an extensive number of affixes to express an extensive amounts of distinctions. Likewise, auxiliary verbs are also used to further increase the distinctions available. Some of these are described below.
Tuvan has two past tense categories, an 'assertive/definite' and a 'non-assertive/indefinite', past. Both of these are represented on the verb with an affix. The assertive past is the one exception to the use of the pronomial enclitics among main clause verbs in Tuvan. For most verbs, there is no clear-cut semantic distinction, though there are minimal contrasts that could be established for a few verbs. Generally, the non-assertive is the unmarked form, and refers to a general point in the past; it can also be used to express a point further back in the past, such as the English past perfect. The assertive, therefore, may refer to a recent or definite time in the past, and also refers back to things already introduced; in many people's speech, it occurs primarily with first person subjects. A full conjugation paradigm for the two past tenses can be seen in the table below.
Non-Assertive Past Assertive Past English
uškan men uštum I flew
uškan sen uštuŋ You flew
uškan uštu S/he flew
uškan bis uštuvus We flew
uškan siler uštuŋar You (pl.) flew
uškan(nar) uštu(lar) They flew
Non-past is expresed as one form in Tuvan, thus ažïdaar men can mean "I work" or "I will work". Non-past actions are commonly denoted by auxiliary verbs, which may express a progressive or non-progressive meaning.
Tuvan has six aspect markers on the verb, the iterative, used colloquially to mark expressive actions as well as iterative actions; the perfective; the resultative, used to mark and emphasize actions completed in the past, and used to emphasize the truth of a statement the hearer doubts (e.g. I did see you!); unaccomplished, used to mark an unaccomplished action and now mostly extinct. It carried a sense that the verb would be completed in the near future; emphatic, marked with reduplication, which adds emphasis to the verb or the connotation of a rapid/intense action; cessation, 'to stop doing X'.
Tuvan also marks an extensive set of modal categories on the verb. These include the conditional, marking conditional statements in the past and future, and used to mean 'in order to'; the concessive mood, corresponding to English 'even though' or 'although'; the conciliatory, or optative, which signals the concession or agreement on the part of the subject to perform an action; the desiderative; the evidential mood, which can also signal reported speech or the inadvertant, involuntary or unexpected nature of an action; the imperative mood.
Verbs are negated with a suffix. Tuvan also has a system of converbs, which can add shades of semantic meaning to the verb. Likewise, there is an extensive system of auxiliary verbs, which, when used with certain converbs, can add a further distinction in various tenses, aspects and moods. One example of this is where an auxiliary can be used to create a continuous meaning. Furthermore, other auxiliaries can add various shades of meaning, such as a self-benefactive voice, capabiliative mood, inchoative aspect, benefactive voice, etc. Some auxiliaries determine the meaning depending on the converb or semantic class of the verb, but most auxiliaries only have one meaning, despite the converb. A list of these auxiliaries, and their additional meanings, can be seen in the table below.
Auxiliary Meaning
al- self-benefactive voice or capabilative mood
ber- inchoative aspect or benefactive mood
bar- completitive/perfective action or translocative action (across space)
bol- possibilitive mood
čït- capabilitive mood
čoru - imperfective or durative aspect
egele- inchoative aspect
kag- 'already'
kel- cislocative
kir- completive or terminative aspect
kör- attemptive mood
olur- imperfective aspect

Miscellany

Samples

Spoken sample:
Conversation/interview
throat singing lullaby
More throat singing
Final throat singing
Tuvan storyteller telling an epic tale
Introduction to another epic tale
Written sample:
Тыва чоннуң эртинези – хөөмей
Делегейниң эң улуг күчулүг, чараш, арыг, байлак хемнерниң бирээзи – алдарлыг Енисейниң – Улуг Хемниң шуурап баткан ораны, делегейде чок дээн делгем чаагай Азия диптиң географтыг төвү, чүрээ, буурул баштыг Саян сыннары хаажылаан Тыва чурту бойдустуң эң ховар чурумалы, тураскаалы болуп турары дег, тываларны өске чоннардан ылгап, алдаржыдып, киискидип турар онзагай демдектер эвээш эвес.
(Excerpt from an essay about Tuvan throat singing)
Tyvan Wikipedia

Sources

Previous LotWs

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submitted by galaxyrocker to languagelearning [link] [comments]

Rookie Mistakes

In the recent discussion sparked by the proposal to separate the community, a lot of people concluded that some materials to help new conlangers avoid the same old mistakes may be handy. I've been conlanging for a very long time, and seen a lot of newcomers on this sub, so I thought it may be appropriate to give my take on common pitfalls and how and why to avoid them.
The Romlang/Germanic Lang
Ok, I'll admit that this is more a stylistic pet peeve than a mandatory rule for successful conlanging, but I think it's a pet peeve that most people who've been on here a while share. I think it's worth saying, though, that everyone has seen someone make minor variations on Latin, German, or Norwegian. The thing about these languages is that, conlanger or not, most of us (at least Westerners) are already relatively familiar with them. Conlanging should be at some level a learning process, and it's just hard to get much out of a language that's a slight variation on something we've seen before. That being said, if you have a genuine, serious, deep interest in Romance languages or Germanic languages, go for it. If you want to capture others' interest, though, try adding something unique. For instance, check out Brithenig, a Romlang set in Great Britain that displays some fantastic influence by the Celtic languages. Alternatively, if you're just looking for a place to start, there are some fantastic languages out there that aren't spoken in Western Europe. These actually tend to be a lot more interesting to English speakers at least, just because they often employ some very different ways of communicating from what we know. My recommendations might include Chinese, Hebrew, Navajo, Malay, Arabic, Shona, Yoruba, Cherokee, Hawaiian, Korean, or Guarani, all of which tend to be both quite well documented and quite different from European languages in at least some regards. Don't take my word, for it, though - find your own. In exploring, try to go into the deep stuff in addition to the phonology and one or two grammar quirks. I can't recommend Wikipedia enough for starting, but don't be afraid to go out and read actual linguistics papers (*gasp*)! Lastly, in the interest of removing mental blinders, I leave you with this.
(A side note to Germanic langers in particular - if you haven't already, read up on historical umlaut and the tense-lax distinction. You can't just stick front rounded vowels everywhere and call it a Germanic-style language.)
The Relex
While we're on the subject of going outside our linguistic comfort zone, it may be apropos to mention the infamous relex. It's harder to address this because not every relex looks the same, but this is a concern I've seen a lot of people express about their own languages. Unfortunately, there's no substitute for plenty of experience in linguistics (which you can gain! I know you can! Yes, Wikipedia articles use a lot of technical vocabulary, but if you're interested just keep following links and searching any terms you don't understand. If you make a concerted effort to push your boundaries, you can learn all about the real limits of human communication.) if your goal is to make something that genuinely works differently from English. However, I am willing to offer a few "gimmicks" that you might not be familiar with:
Classifiers - many East Asian languages have a separate part of speech whose job it is to describe and quantify nouns. They are commonly used with numerals or demonstratives to help count nouns, while at the same time they usually have some semantic or connotative meaning. For instance, in Mandarin you'll commonly hear a phrase that goes something like:
我家有四口人。
My family has four (mouth) people.
In this sentence, the character 口, meaning "mouth", is being used a measure word to both quantify the number of people and to serve a connotative function (i.e., characterizing your family members as mouths to feed.)
In a similar vein, Noun classes - any system of separating nouns into categories. Technically, you're probably already familiar with these in the form of mostly arbitrary classes aligned with biological gender (which the aforementioned Latin, German, and (sorta) Norwegian all have). There are tons of other ways, though. Many languages separate on animacy, or the ability to act with one's own agency (animate things include people, animals, and sometimes natural forces like fire). It's also common to distinguish based on physical properties like shape or material. My personal favorites come from the Bantu languages, which use several semantic classes to derive tons of nouns from a set of roots as well as mark number.
Clusivity - In English we primarily distinguish pronouns by number and whether or not I'm included, and secondarily whether you are. In many languages, though, whether you're included is in parallel to whether I'm included, so there's a category for you, me, both, or neither. In parallel with number as well, you can imagine this as a 2x2x2 box with eight compartments. One of them isn't filled, since you and I can't both be included in a singular pronoun (unless... I did have the idea once where this does exist, and expresses solidarity. Irrelevant.), leaving you with seven pronouns (before case) instead of six. As you'll know by now if you stopped and thought for a second before continuing to read, the end result of this is simply that you have two first-person plural pronouns: one that does include the listener, and one that doesn't.
Other persons - while we're talking about pronouns, it's worth mentioning that there can be more than three persons. People will vary on how they number the extra ones. Hypothetical person (usually called 0th) is just like the word "one" in the sentence "One can retire ten years earlier if they merely follow the five financial secrets I reveal in my new book that's hitting shelves in March." That is, it refers to anyone generally that happens to do something rather than a specific referent. Another big one is the proximate-obviate distinction - separating third persons based on how salient they are (just read it.)
Whew. There are also some less gimmicky or easy to explain linguistic topics that you should really familiarize yourself with:
Voice - it's not just active and passive. Voice is really about emphasis, and there's any number of ways to do it (or don't at all, like many natlangs). Fun fact - English also has a mediopassive: in the sentence "The cake is baking.", the cake is grammatically a subject but semantically kinda an object, which some linguists consider a separate voice in constrast with something like "I'm baking the cake.", where the same verb takes a totally different type of argument set.
Argument agreement - it's not just conjugation or noun-adjective agreement. Any related items can be marked to show that fact. Agreement is used as a device to reduce syntactic load.
The information theory behind word order - don't just pick your word order by throwing a dart at a list. There's a reason some word orders are more common than others. A TL;DNR for this paper is that languages that mark heavily on the verb work best as SOV, and those that don't work best as SVO.
Morphosyntactic Alignment - I notice that a lot of people go for ergative-accusative even though it's really pretty uncommon. I would certainly recommend familiarizing yourself with it, but to satisfy that lust for non-Englishiness might I instead suggest a split-S system.
Dependent clauses - just might be the hardest part about making languages (for those of you that haven't heard, by the way, English is a syntactical clusterfuck when it comes to these. It's worth reading up to avoid copying English's weirdnesses.). Just remember: subordinate clause=adverb, noun clause=noun, relative clause=adjective.
The Oligosynthetic Language
I actually rather like oligosynthesis sometimes, and I have experimented with them like every schoolboy conlanger, but it's worth mentioning that they can't really make valid systems of communication, for theoretical reasons that plenty of 19th-century philologists before you have learned the hard way. In a (rather big) nutshell, here's why:
The thing about oligosynthetic languages like Toki Pona is that they're still lacking information in their canon. "Learning" Toki Pona as it's published doesn't actually allow you to communicate fluently - you still have to internalize the more complex meanings that you form by combination, but unlike in other languages, a lot of such specific meanings don't even have universally agreed-upon forms. Even after you learn every Toki Pona root, you can't tell someone else "I went to the bookstore yesterday to buy the next book in my daughter's favorite young adult fiction series" until you've also learned the agreed-upon combination meaning "bookstore," "yesterday," "next," "daughter," "young adult," and "fiction." No oligosynthetic language is so self-explanatory that speakers don't have to agree on semantic combinations the same way they have to agree on the atomic roots. It is advantageous that the combinations are mnemonic, but they're not instantly self-evident; they have to be memorized just like words. Then there are the pragmatic concerns once the language is learned - the paucity of roots means that any sequence could be meaningfully parsed multiple ways, obscuring intended meaning. As the makers of philosophical languages discovered in the late 1800s, such an organized system of word building also ensures that things with similar meanings sound similar, which makes it unbelievably easier to misinterpret flawed information transmission (hear things wrong). A lot of linguistic information theory is concerned with the "rate of transmission", which is increased when context and sound convey maximally different information. All language employs redundancy in order to absolutely ensure that there's no confusion in the event of this flawed information transmission. When words are built in an oligosynthetic system, a lot of morphemes are being employed to convey information that's already evident from context, since it's specifying the general semantic area of whatever the word is, and only small portions of the word serve to make minor distinctions within a semantic area, which pragmatically turns out to be the most important job of transmitted, as opposed to contextual, information. However, by definition the morphemes must be usable in all contexts, so that same morpheme that must be lengthy and distinctive where it counts must also be lengthy and distinctive where it doesn't. As a result, oligosynthetic languages tend to be less informationally dense. Toki Pona in particular is prohibitively wordy since its creator decided to make some roots two and three syllables long even though there's only a couple hundred. It's a sure sign that no one actually uses it that it hasn't been compressed and made irregular, which is exactly what would happen in a fluent community almost instantaneously. Oligosynthetic languages look good until you try using them, at which point they inevitably break down into something that looks like an irregular natlang. Human languages look like they do for a reason, and if there were a simpler and easier way to use language it would have naturally come to exist by now. Always remember that.
The No-Phonotactics
Most languages have some pretty specific rules about how they organize their sounds. This may be a hard one to come at from English, since it has very difficult-to-define phonotactic rules and plenty of unique words. Most languages, it's worth mentioning, don't. I don't want to go on at length about what's really a complex main topic in linguistics, but it's worth investigating. It's also worth pointing out that European languages in particular can be very consonant-heavy and allow more complex sequences of consonants that most languages. Investigate African or East Asian phonotactics to get a good idea of other areas of the spectrum.
submitted by qzorum to conlangs [link] [comments]

I’m looking for a whole bunch of resources and information

Alright, so, I have decided that I don’t want to learn with a book. I never enjoyed that and I gave it a shot again with Colloquial Icelandic, and, no surprises, I don’t enjoy using it. So I’ve decided to take matters into my own hands.
I want to first get an overview on the grammar. I’ll probably skim Colloquial Icelandic for anything grammar related to get a picture of what I need to focus on. I need to mention here that my native language is German, so the four cases are all well known to me (though there may be differences I’m not aware of—please mention if you’re aware of any).
Then I want to start reading simple books. Ones for children. Then more complicated ones. I’ll write out all new words and add them to Anki. I’ve got a few good ideas for how to use Anki effectively. I will need a few things before I can really start though:
Also, there are some things I’d like to know already:
Also, I can’t torrent anything. I could always ask a friend to get it and send it to me, but unless you think it’s really worth it I’d rather not.
submitted by BoneHead777 to learnIcelandic [link] [comments]

english irregular verbs conjugation list pdf video

An English Irregular Verb List — Free PDF Download Improve your English by learning and memorizing the common irregular verbs in English below. If you have any questions about studying English, please contact us. Common Irregular Verbs - Grouped Author: RebeccaESL Subject: A list of the most common irregular verbs in English. You should know these by heart. They have been grouped to assist you in learning. Remember that the base form is used with the simple present tense. (Example: I often forget my umbrella. Perfect-English-Grammar.com 50 Common Irregular Verbs Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle be was / were been become became become begin began begun bring brought brought buy bought bought ... Microsoft Word - 50 Common Irregular Verbs list.doc Author: Seonaid Bell Created Date: List of Dutch irregular verbs Infinitive simple past singular simple past plural past participle English bakken bakte bakten gebakken to fry bannen bande banden gebannen to ban barsten barstte barstten gebarsten to burst bederven bedierf bedierven bedorven to rot, to decay bedriegen bedroog bedrogen bedrogen List of Irregular Verbs Base form - past simple - past participle https://www.e-grammar.org/pdf-books/ https://www.e-grammar.org/ lose lost lost Title: Microsoft Word - irregular verbs chart - alphabetical order.doc Author: rewind Created Date: 4/13/2009 2:46:21 PM 1 The English Irregular Verb REGULAR VS. IRREGULAR VERBS A regular verb forms its past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to its base form. This ending may be pronounced /d/ (cared, happened, viewed), /ud/ (committed, needed, listed), or /t/ (mixed, searched, slipped).See pages 3–4 for details. An irregular verb forms its past tense or past participle, or both, in an unpredictable Irregular Verbs 1 of 21 UsingEnglish.com List of 616 English Irregular Verbs From UsingEnglish.com A comprehensive list of 616 English irregular verbs, including their base form, past simple, past participle and definitions. Click on Show Forms to see the 3rd person singular and the present participle instead of the definitions. All the verbs that do not follow the rules above in the conjugation of one or more tenses are called irregular verbs. There are about 200 English irregular verbs, many of them very common. Most of the irregular verbs conjugate without following the rules in simple past and past participle. This list contains all the irregular verbs of the English language. Each entry includes the base or bare infinitive first, followed by the simple past (V2) form and the past participle (V3) form. Taking some time to make sentences using each irregular verb form will help you to use these verbs correctly when speaking and writing.

english irregular verbs conjugation list pdf top

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english irregular verbs conjugation list pdf

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